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| UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



BY / 

FLOBEXCE BEETON 

Head of Collegiate Department in Miss Spence's School for Girls 



SECOND EDITION 




PHILADELPHIA 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
1896 



N- 



TE.IU1 



Copyright, 1894, by Florence Beeton. 



Copyright, 1895, by Florence Beeton. 



Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U.S.A. 



PREFACE. 



It is intended that Past I. should be 
the child's text-book merely. All exjDlana- 
tion and practice to be done in class. It is 
felt to be unwise for practice at first to be 
done away from the teacher. 

It is intended that with Pakt II. such 
a book as " Practice in Parsing and Analy- 
sis/' by Helen Arnold (published by the 
J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia), 
should be used by the pupils for prepara- 
tion out of class as well as the text-book, 
which is all this little book claims to be. 

F. B. 

New York, October, 1895. 



PART I. 

FOR BEGINNERS. 



Words express our thoughts. So that 
we may know how to speak our thoughts 
clearly and well, we are taught the nature 
of words and of the sentences which they 
form ; and this study is called Grammar. 

Etymology is the name given to the 
study of the way in which words are 
formed. For instance, there is the simple 
word "black;" but if we wish to say that 
we make a thing black we use the word 
" blacken." This addition to the word is 
called a mffix, and the word " blacken" is 
called a derivative. 

1* o 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Ex. 



Simple words. 


Derivatives or derived words. 


hard 


harden 


sweet 


sweeten 


true 


truly 


man 


manly 


weak 


weakly 


glad . 


gladsome 


blue 


bluish 


tall 


taller, tallest 



Sometimes an addition is made before 
instead of after a word. This is called a 
prefix. 



Simple words. 


Derivatives or derived words. 


Ex. true 


untrue 


active 


inactive 


head 


behead 


courage 


encourage 


large 


enlarge 


fresh 


refresh 


side 


beside 


Sometimes both 

Idpd 


prefix and suffix 


LtlcU. 

Simple words. 


Derivatives or derived words. 


Ex. bold 


embolden 


light 


enlighten 



are 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 7 

There are words called compound words, 
where two or more words are put into the 
form of one word. 

Ex. homesick overturn 

outgrow forever 

Sometimes the words are joined by a 
hyphen. 

Ex. forget-me-not shell-fish foot-ball 

father- in-law commander-in-chief 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Words are used in different ways, called 
Parts of Speech : 

Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, 
Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. 

NOUN. 

When we name a person, a place, or a 
thing, the word we use is called a noun. 
There are three kinds of nouns. 

Proper Nouns. — Mary names a particu- 
lar girl ; India names a particular country ; 
Dobbin names a particular horse. We call 
all such names proper nouns. 



8 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Abstract Nouns. — When we name a 
quality; ex., heroism, bravery, foolishness, 
wit. A condition; ex., sorrow, death, life, 
joy, pain. An action ; ex., singing, langhter, 
a jump, a cry. We call all such names 
abstract nouns. 

Common Nouns. — When we name any 
other thing or person ; ex., pony, desk, cloth, 
tailor, laundress, bread, corn, minister, air. 
We call all such names common nouns. 

Note. — Because words like bird, tree, sailor, are the 
names of a class of things or persons, we call them common 
class nouns. Because words like army, family, herd, are the 
names of a number of persons or things under one name, 
we call them common collective nouns. 

Gender and Number of Nouns. — 
When we speak of a tree or a box, we say 
it; when we speak of a sailor, we say lie; 
when we speak of a queen, we say she. This 
shows a difference of gender. 

There are four genders for nouns. Mascu- 
line ; ex., sailor, nncle, etc. Feminine ; ex., 
queen, aunt, etc. Neuter ; ex., tree, box, 
house, etc. Common ; ex., cousin, parent, 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 

child, etc. This last gender is called " com- 
mon' ' because such nouns may be either 
feminine or masculine. Animals' names, 
such as fowls, sheep, are common gender. 

Number. — When we say " boy," we mean 
one boy. This we call the singular number ; 
but when we say " boys," we mean more than 
one boy. This we call the plural number. 

Note. — Nouns do not all add only s for the plural num- 
ber. Nouns ending in ch, x, s, or sit, take es. 

Singular. Plural. 

Ex. church churches 

box boxes 

gas gases 

brush brushes, etc. 

Nouns ending in ry, ly, etc. , take ies. 

Singular. Plural. 

Ex. berry berries 

jelly jellies, etc.* 

Some nouns change in forming the plural ; ex. , a few 
ending in / take ves. 

* But nouns ending in ey take s only. 

Singular. Plural. 

Ex. donkey donkeys 

Notice that the plural of echo, potato, cargo, etc., is 
echoed, potatoes, cargoes. 



10 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Ex. wharf 


wharves 


loaf 


loaves, etc.* 


A few nouns take en. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Ex. ox 


oxen 


Some change their vowel. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Ex. man 


men 



Some do not change at all ; ex., sheep, deer, etc. 
Some nouns are used only in the singular; ex., flesh, 
peace ; and some only in the plural ; ex., tongs, trousers. f 

* But some, like cliff, roof, etc., add s only. 

Singular. Plural. 

Ex. cliff cliffs 

roof roofs 

f A few nouns have two plurals, with a slight differ- 
ence of meaning ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

Ex. penny pennies, pence 

brother brothers, brethren 

Foreign words keep their own plural form. 

Singular. Plural. 

Ex. analysis analyses 

phenomenon phenomena, etc. 

Compound nouns with hyphens add s to the chief 
word; ex., brothers-in-law, knights-errant. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 

PRONOUNS. 

When, instead of using or repeating a 
noun, we use a word which stands for it, we 
call such word a pronoun. 

Ex. /met John ; he picked it up. 

Because they stand for nouns, they have 
the same gender and number as the nouns 
they stand for. 

There are five different kinds of pronouns. 

Personal Pronouns. — Because I and we 
speak, we say they are in the first person. 

Because thou and you are spoken to, we 
say they are in the second person. 

Because he, she, it, and they are spoken 
of, we say they are in the third person* 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Ex. 1st Person, 


I 


we 


2d Person, 


thou 


you 


3d Person, 


he, she, it 


they 



* Nouns are also said to be in the first person when 
they speak, in the second person when spoken to, in the 
third person when spoken of. 



12 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Relative Pronouns. — The words who, 
which, that, and what are called relative 
pronouns, because they relate to a noun 
which goes before (or is understood), called 
the antecedent. 

Ex. The man who lives there is a merchant (man 
is the antecedent). 

This is the house that Jack built (house is 
the antecedent). 

I did not know which you meant (noun un- 
derstood). 

Listen to what I say (noun understood.)* 

Interrogative Pronouns. — When who, 
which, and what ask questions, we call them 
interrogative pronouns. 

Ex. Who said so? What was it? Which took it? 

Demonstrative Pronouns. — When we 
say the words this or that, pointing out and 
standing for things near or farther off, they 
are called demonstrative pronouns. 

Ex. This is the house. Take that. 

* The word what really stands for that which : it is a sort 
of contracted form. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 

Indefinite Pronouns. — Words like some, 
few, any, many, each, either, etc., often stand 
for nouns, and are called indefinite pronouns, 

Ex. Some say so. Either will do* 

ADJECTIVES. 

When we use a word to describe or point 
out or tell how many persons, places, or 
things, we call that word an adjective. 

There are four different kinds. 

Descriptive Adjectives. — These words 
describe nouns. 

Ex. A fine picture, a tall man, a long walk, a 
brown house. 

Numeral Adjectives. — These words tell 
how many. 

Ex. Two men, five times, third time, a fifth part. 

Articles. — We call the little words a, an, 

and the articles, and we put them in with the 

* These words have a double use. "When used with a 
noun following they are adjectives, but when used without 
a noun they are pronouns. 

2 



14 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

adjectives because they stand with and before 
the noun ; but because they are necessary to 
the noun (almost always), they have a special 
name. 

Pronominal Adjectives. — Words like 
some, many, each, few, either, other, etc., 
when they stand before a noun are called 
pronominal adjectives* 

VERBS. 
When we say something about a noun or 
a pronoun, making what we call a statement 
or sentence with the noun, we find we always 
use a word which we call a verb. It should 
therefore be understood as the " stating word" 
in a sentence. 

Ex. John catches fish. Mary sews neatly. 
He is good. She runs fast. 

There are two kinds of verbs. 
Transitive. — When a verb passes its 
action on to a noun (ex., Jack kicks the 

* They are called pronominals because these same words 
are pronouns when used without a noun following; ex., 
some say so. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 

ball ; she loves her mother) , we call it transi- 
tive, for we can kick something and we can 
love something. 

Intransitive. — When a verb does not 
pass its action on to a noun (ex., he sleeps 
soundly ; he goes to-morrow) , we call it 
intransitive, for we cannot sleep anything 
or go anything. 

Note. — We call a noun that follows a transitive verb the 
object of the verb. 

ADVERBS. 

When a word tells about the verb, we call 
it an adverb. 

Ex. He rows quickly. (How ?) Adverb of 

manner. 
She sings well. (How?) Adverb of 

manner. 
She came yesterday. (When ?) Adverb of 

time. 
He went there. (Where?) Adverb of place. 
He did it purposely. (Why?) Adverb of 

cause. 

Adverbs also tell about adjectives and 
about other adverbs. 



16 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Ex. He came very soon. (How soon ?) Adverb 
of degree. 
He did it rather well. (How well?) 

There are therefore five kinds of adverbs : 
Manner, Time, Place, Cause, Degree. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Words which tell the relation or position 
of one thing to another are called prepo- 
sitions. 

Ex. The house on the hill. 
The eat in the garden. 
He crossed under the bridge. 

They always stand just before a noun or 
pronoun or the adjective modifying a noun, 
and cannot be moved without affecting the 
sense. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Words that we use to connect words and 
sentences and parts of sentences are called 
conjunctions. 

Ex. The girl and boy. 

He did it easily and quickly finished it. 
I did not know that you had done it. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 17 

INTERJECTIONS. 

All words of exclamation, such as, Alas ! 
Indeed ! Oh ! Ah ! are called interjections. 

A SENTENCE. 

When we make a complete statement, 
we find it has two chief parts. Ex., The 
pony is lame. Here we make a statement 
about the pony ; we call " the pony/' there- 
fore, the subject. The statement we make 
about the pony is that it is lame ; we call 
" is lame," therefore, the predicate. 

A PHRASE. 

Part of a sentence which gives us an idea, 
but only part of the statement, we call a 
phrase. 

Ex. lie stood in the street. 
It was a very cool day. 
Where did ho stand ? In the street. 
What was it? A very cool day. 



PART II. 



SENTENCES. 

There are three different kinds of sen- 
tences. 

A Simple Sentence is composed of two 
parts, the subject and the predicate. 

The subject is the person or thing about 
whom a statement is made. The predicate 
is the statement made about the subject. 

Ex. The sun shines. Here sun is the subject ; 
shines is the predicate. 

A Complex Sentence is composed of 
a principal sentence and subordinate sen- 
tences. 

Ex. 1. I asked that he might come. 

2. The man who said so knew no better. 

3. What you say only convinces me. 

4. She came as soon as she could. 

18 



SENTENCES. 19 

Note. — 1. Here the clause which is subordinate com- 
pletes the verb of the principal sentence. 

2. Here the subordinate clause modifies the antece- 
dent in the principal sentence, and is an adjective 
clause. 

3. Here the subordinate clause is the subject of the 
principal sentence. 

4. Here the subordinate clause modifies soon ; it is 
therefore adverbial. 

A Compound Sentence is a sentence 
composed of two or more sentences of equal 
rank. 

A Phrase is part of a sentence forming 
a complete idea, but not a statement. 

Ex. The house stands on the hill. This phrase 
gives the idea of where the house stands. 

Ex. He is a very fine man. This phrase gives the 
idea of what he is, but in itself is not a statement, 
as it is only part of a statement, not having both 
subject and predicate. 

There are eight Parts of Speech : 

Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, 
Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. 



20 NOUN. 

NOUN. 
A noun is the name of any person, place, 
or thing. There are three classes of nouns : 
Proper. — A particular name of a person or 
place. 

Abstract. — Names of 

Qualities: ex., beauty. 

Conditions: ex., sorrow. 
Actions : ex., march, jump. 

Verbal nouns : ex., living (to live) ; 
singing (to sing). 
Common. — All names that are neither proper 
nor abstract ; ex., cloth, gas, day, mile, etc. 

Class nouns are names of a class of persons 
or things; ex., warrior, statesman, bird, 
tree, picture. 
Collective nouns are names of a number of 
persons or things in one ;* ex., army, 
family, herd, flock. 

CASES OF NOUNS. 

There are three cases for nouns in English, 
Nominative, Possessive, and Objective, but 

* For Gender and Number of nouns, see Part I., page 8, 
and for Person, Part I., page 11, note. 



NOUN. 21 

there is inflection * for the possessive case 
only. 

Norn. Posa. Obj. 

Mary Mary's Mary 

Nominative Case. — There are six ways 
in which a noun can be in the nominative 
case : 

1. The subject of a sentence ; ex., The man is tired. 

2. A noun in apposition to the subject ; ex., The 
Emperor, Julius Ca&sar, was a great Eoman. 

Note. — When a noun stands beside another noun ex- 
plaining it, it is said to be in apposition. 

3. A predicate nominative ; ex., He is a tall man. 

Note. — When a noun completes the assertion of an 
intransitive verb and modifies the subject, it is called a 
Predicate Noun, or nominative. 

4. Nominative absolute ; ex., The sun having 
risen, we departed. 

Note. — A noun that stands as subject in a participial 
phrase, expressing accompanying circumstance, f 

* Inflection means change of form to express difference 
of meaning. Inflection of a noun is called its declension. 
For the change of a noun from singular to plural number, 
see Part I., page 9. 

t The participle is sometimes understood; ex., Staff in 
hand, he sallied forth. 



22 NOUN. 

5. The nominative of address ; ex., Charles, come 
here. 

6. The nominative of exclamation ; ex., O joy, 
that it is accomplished !* 

Possessive Case. — A noun in the pos- 
sessive case modifies the noun which follows ; 
it is therefore used as an adjective ; ex., 
Mary's hat. 

Note. — The rule for placing the apostrophe is, that in 
the singular it is before s, in the plural after s; with a 
compound noun the s stands at the end. With the name 
of a firm it stands after the last name only. 

Objective Case. — There are six ways in 
which a noun can be in the objective case. 

1. The object of a transitive verb ; ex., The cat 
ate the mouse. 

2. A noun in apposition to the object ; ex., She 
took her son Charles with her. 

* Punctuation. — In sentences, commas are always 
placed before and after a noun-phrase used in apposition, 
being of the nature of a parenthesis. In participial' 
phrases with a nominative absolute, commas are used for 
the same reason. 



NOUN. 23 

3. The object of a preposition ; ex., She seized it 
by the handle. * 

4. The indirect object; ex., He gave the boy a 
book. 

Note. — Where to or for is understood before a noun, 
with verbs like give, lend, etc., it is called the indirect 
object. 

5. The cognate object ; ex., She dreamed a dream. 
The factitive object ; ex., He flies a kite. 

Note. — When an intransitive verb is used transitively 
and the object is of the same nature as the verb, we call 
it cognate ; when the verb is used in the sense of making 
to fly, etc., we call the object factitive. 

6. The predicate objective ; ex., They chose her 
queen. 

Note. — With verbs of making, choosing, calling, etc., 
we find that the second noun completes the assertion of 
the verb and modifies the object. This is therefore called 
the Predicate Objective Noun. 

* There are instances where a noun is the object of a 
preposition understood. 

Ex. They walked (for) a mile. 

You should have come (by) a day earlier. 
He died (during) last night. 
He waited (for) an hour, etc. 

This is not called the indirect object. 



24 PRONOUN. 

PRONOUN. 

A pronoun is a word that stands in place 
of a noun. 

There are two large classes, Definite and 
Indefinite.* There are four divisions of the 
definite class, and five divisions of the in- 
definite class. 

Definite. — 

Personal : ex., I, thou, etc. 

Relative: | ex., who, which, that, what. 

Demonstrative : ex., this, that. 

Interrogative : ex., who ? which ? what ? 

Indefinite. — 

Quantitative : ex., some, any, few, etc. 
Distributive : ex., each, either, neither. 
Comparative : ex., such, other. 
Reciprocal : ex., each other, one another. 
Compound relative : ex., whoever, whichever, 
etc. 

* This division is simply an arbitrary one, and is given 
only as an aid to classification. 

t Who is never used except when a person is its ante- 
cedent. That and which are used with names of animals, 
things, and persons as antecedents. What is a contraction 
of that u-hich. 



Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


1st. 


1 


m Y, 


mine 


me 


2d. 


Thou 


<%, 


thine 


thee 


3d. 


He 


his, 


his 


him 


3d. 


She 


her, 


hers 


her 


3d. 


It 


its, 


its 


it 


1st. 


We 


our, 


ours 


us 


2d. 


You 


your, 


yours 


you 


3d. 


They 


their, 


theirs 


them 



PRONOUN. 25 

Personal Pronouns. — These are inflected 
for person, number, and case. 

Ex. 

Singular. 



Plural. 



Note. — There are two forms of the possessive case ; the 
first is used as an adjective, the second as a pronoun. 

There are two uses of it where it is not truly a pronoun ; 
ex., it rains, and he lorded it (impersonal use) ; and also 
wdiere it stands in a sentence as a preparatory subject, the 
phrase or clause in apposition to it coming afterward ; ex., 
It is healthy to rise early : It is a chance if he succeed. 

Relative Pronouns. — Of these, only who 
is inflected. 

Nominative. Possessive. Objective, 

who whose whom 

Note. — They are also called conjunctive pronouns, because 
they introduce subordinate sentences, connecting them 
with the principal. Clauses introduced by a relative pro- 
noun are called relative clauses. Sometimes the pronoun 
is omitted ; ex., The horse (that) he rode on is lame. 
3 



26 ADJECTIVE. 

Demonstrative Pronouns. — This and 
that are inflected for number only, the 
plural form being these and those. 

Indefinite Pronouns. — Of these, only a 
few, such as whoever \ either \ each other, etc., 
are inflected, with the apostrophe in the pos- 
sessive case.* 

ADJECTIVE. 

An adjective is a word that modifies a 
noun. There are four classes : 

Descriptive : ex., fine, tall, slow, etc. 
Articles: ex., a, an, the. 

Numerals : ex., two, second, etc. 
Pronominals : ex. (all those words which in an- 
other use are pronouns), some, any, many, each, etc. 

Descriptive Adjectives. — Such words 
as describe nouns ; ex., tall, fine. They 
have three degrees of comparison : 

* In the sentence, I love such as love me, the word as 
is equivalent to who; it is therefore used as a relative 
pronoun. In the sentence, There is not a man here but 
knows it, but is equivalent to who not ; it is therefore used 
as a relative pronoun. 



ADJECTIVE. 27 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

small smaller smallest 

When the word is long we usually com- 
pare it by using more and most : 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

learned more learned most learned 

Some are irregular in their comparison : 

Ex. bad worse worst 

good better best 

many more most 

little less least, etc. 

Numeral Adjectives. — There are four 
kinds of numeral adjectives : 

Cardinal : ex., two, three, four, etc. 

Ordinal: ex., second, third, fourth (in 

order). 
Fractional : ex., fourth, fifth (fractions). 
Multiplicative: ex., threefold, double. 

Pronominal Adjectives. — These can be 
subdivided like the pronouns, so that one 
classification is enough.* (See page 24.) 

* Since it is according to the use of words that we 
classify them as Parts of Speech, we may find the same 



28 ADJECTIVE. 

Note. — For personal substitute possessive (my, thy, 
etc.). 

There are three ways in which we use 
adjectives : 

Attributive : ex., A fine horse. 
Predicative : ex., He is good. 
Appositive : ex., Virtuous beyond belief, he lived 
and died a saint. 

Note. — The predicative use gives it the name of Predi- 
cate Adjective. The appositive is almost parenthetical in 
its nature. 

Use of the Predicate Adjective. — In- 
transitive verbs, like be, become, grow, seem, 
appear, look, sound, smell, continue, sit, etc., 
require an adjective (or a noun) to complete 
their assertion and modify the subject ; ex., 
He is growing rich. 

Adverbial. — Sometimes this adjective is 
used almost adverbially ; ex., The sun shines 

words used as adjectives, pronouns, or nouns ; ex., we say, 
Some men, or some ; and we also say, The good deserve 
success. 



VERB. 29 

bright, or, The tone rings clear and full, and, 
having the double value, the adjective may 
be called in such cases the adverbial predi- 
cate adjective. 

Objective. — Sometimes we find an ad- 
jective completing the transitive verb and 
modifying the object ; ex., He made the 
stick straight. This adjective (like the noun 
used in a similar way) may be called the 
predicate objective adjective. 

VERB. 

A verb asserts of a subject. 

Verbs are inflected much less than for- 
merly, but there is slight inflection for 
person, number, tense,* participles,*)" and 
mood.J 

* Tense means time. 

t The two participles are partly verb, partly adjec- 
tive', and partly noun in their nature. (The name par- 
ticiple suggests participation in the nature of other parts 
of speech.) 

% Mood means manner of assertion. 
3* 



30 



VERB. 



Note. — In the conjugation of verbs, we find, besides 
inflection, certain other verbs used to help, forming verb 
phrases. These are called auxiliaries. 



Tense. — There are six tenses : 
two are simple. 



of these 



The Present. 

I live I write 

thou livest thou writest 

he lives he writes 

we live we w r rite 

you live you write 

they live they write 



The Preterite. 

I lived I wrote 

thou livedst thou wrotest 

he lived he wrote 

we lived we wrote 

you lived you wrote 

they lived they wrote 



Of the remaining four tenses two are 
composed of auxiliaries and participle : 

Perfect. Pluperfect. 

Ex. I have lived, etc. I had lived 
I have -written, etc. I had written 



The other two tenses are composed of 
auxiliaries and the infinitive, and auxiliaries 
with infinitive and participle : 



VERB. 31 

Future. Future Perfect. 

Ex. I shall live I shall have lived 

I shall write * I shall have written 

Moods, — There are three moods: 

Indicative (positive, assured) : ex., I am I was 
Subjunctive (doubtful, possible) : ex., if I be if I were 
Imperative (command, entreaty) : ex., come try 

Principal Parts of a Verb. — We speak 
of three principal parts of a verb : 

(Root) Infinitive. Preterite. Past Participle. 

* (to) live lived (have) lived 

(to) write wrote (have) written 

We classify verbs according to these parts. 

* In the future tense it is curious to notice that the 
tense runs in this form; 



I shall 


we shall 


thou wilt 


you will 


he will 


they will 


e of determination we say exactly 


I will 


we will 


thou shalt 


you shall 


he shall 


they shall 



32 VERB. 

The New and the Old Conjugation 

(weak and strong) . 

The new conjugation is known by the past 
participle ending in d or ed or t, added to the 
root. 

Ex. row rowed rowed (regular) 

buy bought bought (irregular) 

The old conjugation is known by the 
change of vowel in the preterite and the 
addition of en to the root for the past 
participle. 



Ex. write 


wrote written (regular) 


bind 


bound bound (irregular) 


come 


came come (irregular) 


Note. — Some 


verbs 


are often confused as to their prin- 


cipal parts. 






Ex. spring 




sprang (have) sprung 


begin 




began (have) begun 


lie 




lay (have) lain (intransitive) 


lay 




laid (have) laid (transitive) 


wake or awake 


awaked (have) awakened 


wake or awake 


awoke (have) awaked 



The Infinitive. — When not used in a 
verb phrase {ex., I shall live), the infinitive, 
with or without " to" before it, is used just 



VERB. 33 

as a noun is used. It may be called, there- 
fore, a verbal noun, and it may stand as the 
subject or the object of a sentence ; ex., To 
laugh is good for us ; I like to laugh. (In 
such cases it is equivalent to the verbal 
noun laughing.) Sometimes it is used as an 
adverb in a sentence. 

Ex. I came to do it. (Why did I come ?) 

I am glad to hear it. (Why am I glad ?) 

Sometimes it is used as an adjective. 

Ex. Leaves have their time to fall. (What 
time ?) 

Participles. — There are two participles, 
the Present and the Past. 

Ex. writing (have) written 
living (have) lived 

These are both used in verb phrases. 

Ex. I am living. I have lived. 
I am writing. I have written. 

But when not used in a verb phrase both 
participles can be used as adjectives. 

Ex. A running stream ; a printed book. 



34 VERB. 

The present participle is frequently used 
as a verbal noun ; ex., Giving is more blessed 
than receiving. In such cases, being equiv- 
alent to the infinitive verb noun, it is often 
called the participial infinitive or the infin- 
itive participle. 

Note. — Although infinitives and participles are used as 
nouns and adjectives and adverbs, we must remember that 
they are of the nature of a verb and therefore take com- 
pletions like a verb.* 

Ex. Doing good is happiness {good, abstract noun, object of 
verbal noun). Doing good is a participial phrase. 

They also take verb modifiers. 

Ex. To laugh heartily is an excellent exercise. {Heartily is an 
adverb modifying verbal noun.) To laugh heartily is an infinitive 
phrase. 

Verb Phrases. — When a verb is ex- 
pressed by more than one word, we call it a 

* Combined with auxiliaries there are the perfect par- 
ticiple, ex., having written ; and the perfect infinitive, 
ex., (to) have given; also progressive forms of the infini- 
tives; ex., (to) be giving (root progressive infinitive); 
ex., (to) have been giving (perfect progressive infinitive) ; 
ex., having been giving (perfect progressive participle) ; 
ex., being given (past progressive participle). 



VERB. 35 

phrase. There are ten different kinds of 
phrases. 



Progressive: am living (present participle al- 
ways a sign), 
have lived (auxiliary have always 
a sign). 
( may or can live ; 
1 might or could live. 



Perfect : 



Potential : 



Conditional 
Future : 
Emphatic : 
Obligative : 
Negative : 
Interrogative 
Passive : 



should or would live. 

shall live. 

do live. 

must or ought (to) live. 

I do not live. 

do I live? 

I am loved. 



Transitive Verbs and Intransitive 
Verbs. — Verbs that pass their action on to 
a noun (the object of the verb) are called 
transitive. 

When verbs do not pass on the action, they 
are intransitive. (See Part L, page 14.) 

Active Voice and Passive Voice. — 
When the subject of a verb acts, the verb 
is called active. 



36 VERB. 

When the subject of a verb is acted upon, 
the verb is called passive. 

Ex. The girl lights the lamp (active). 
The lamp is lighted (passive). 

Note. — This past participle (lighted) is often called the 
passive participle, because as an adjective it is always used 
in the passive voice ; ex., A lighted lamp. 

Impersonal Verbs. — Such verbs are 
used only in the third person, with an im- 
personal subject ; ex., It rains ; It snows. 

Note.— The impersonal object is seen in such examples 
as : He lorded it over his men ; He footed it over the 
mountain. 

Reflex Use of Veebs. — Sometimes we 
use a verb with an object which is the 
subject reflected ; ex., I dress myself; He 
rested himself.* 

Finite Verb. — (Limited by tense, num- 
ber, person, and mood.) This is the name 
given to all parts of a verb but the infini- 

* This use of the compound personal pronoun should 
not be confused with the emphatic use : ex. , I myself know 
it well. 



ADVERB. 37 

tive, as the infinitive is unlimited by person, 
tense, number, or mood. 

ADVERB. 

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb. 

There are seven classes of adverbs : 

Adverbs of time : ex., soon, now, to-day, etc. 
Adverbs of place: ex., there,* here, yonder. 
Adverbs of manner: ex., softly, gently. 
Adverbs of cause or condition : ex., purposely. 
Adverbs of degree: ex., very, too, much. 
Adverbs of interrogation: ex., why? when? 

where? 
Adverbs of mood (modal) : ex., surely, probably, 

perhaps. 

Note. — Yes or no, yea or nay, are classed with adverbs 
(as responsives). 

The modals are so called because they affect the manner 
of the assertion and do not modify the action of the verb. 

* The word there, when it is used as an expletive or 
preparatory, — ex., There was once, — must not be confused 
with the adverb, which always indicates place ; ex. , I 
found him there. 

4 



38 PREPOSITION. 

Comparison of Adverbs. — We com- 
pare a few adverbs like adjectives : 
Ex, soon sooner soonest 

often oftener oftenest 

But we use mostly more or less: 

Ex. truly more truly most truly 

Some are irregularly compared : 
Ex. ill worse worst 

well better best 

much more most 

PREPOSITION. 

A preposition is a word that shows rela- 
tion or position ; ex., He lives on the hill ; 
he dived under the water. A sure sign of 
a preposition is that it cannot be removed 
from its place before the noun to which it 
belongs. 

Note. — Sometimes the same word may be used in one 
sentence as an adverb, in another as a preposition. The 
adverb can always be moved about, but the preposition 
never. 

Ex. He took off his hat (adverb). 
or, He took his hat off. 



PREPOSITION. 39 

He took a ribbon off his hat (preposition), 
or, He took off his hat a ribbon.* 

Phrasal Preposition. — Sometimes two 
or more words together express one prepo- 
sition : 

Ex. He threw it out of the window. 
According to my idea. 

Other instances are : instead of, in regard 
to, as to, in front of, in spite of, by way of, 
by means of, alongside, etc. 

Conjunctive Prepositions. — In the sen- 
tences, Do not fire until I give the signal ; 
he was here before I was ; I stayed after he 
left, the preposition has for its object a noun 
clause, or a sentence used as a noun after a 
preposition, and it connects the principal 
and subordinate sentences. 

Prepositional Phrases. — A preposition, 
with its noun-object, forms a phrase which 
modifies adjectively or adverbially : 

* Sometimes an intransitive verb is made transitive by 
adding an adverb to the verb ; ex. , They laugh at the man. 
In the passive form it is, "The man was laughed at;" 
"Your case shall be attended to." 



40 CONJUNCTION. 

Ex. The house on the hill is brown. Here it 
modifies a noun ; it is therefore used adjectively. 

Ex. These trees are laden with foliage. Here it 
modifies the verb, and is therefore used adverbially.* 

CONJUNCTION. 

These words connect sentences. There 
are two classes, Co-ordinate and Subordinate. 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect sen- 
tences of equal rank. 

There are five divisions of the co-ordinate : 

Copulative : ex., and, also, besides, moreover. 
Causal : ex., for, hence, therefore. 

Correlative : ex., either — or, and neither — nor. 
Alternatives : ex., or, else, either, neither, nor. 
Adversatives : ex., yet, still, however, neverthe- 
less. 

Subordinate Conjunctions. — These in- 
troduce subordinate sentences : 

* Some phrases, as, by stealth, at random, of yore, at 
all, at once, at last, at least, in part, in short, in vain, in 
general, as yet, by far, of old, for good, of late, etc., 
should be treated as phrasal adverbs, and not as preposi- 
tional phrases. 



INTERJECTION. 41 

Ex. That, if, although, etc. 

He told me that he would come, etc. 

Note. — In such examples as, He is a better man than I 
[am], Thou shalt love thy neighbor as [thou lovest] thy- 
self, the sentence introduced by the conjunction is incom- 
plete. 

Some are adverbial conjunctions : 

Ex. I know where he is. 

I know why he came, etc. 

Note. — A subordinate sentence either modifies a word 
in the principal sentence, or stands as subject or object or 
other completion of the verb in the principal sentence. 
It is therefore easy to distinguish which is a subordinate 
conjunction. (See Sentences, page 18.) 

Phrasal Conjunctions. — Sometimes two 
or more words together form a conjunction ; 
ex., In order that, as well as, provided that, 
as though, etc. 

INTERJECTION. 

Interjections are words of exclamation, 
such as alas ! alack ! oh ! etc. 

Note. — Before a noun the interjection is ; ex., joy ! 
without a noun it is Oh ! 

4* 



APPENDIX. 



NOTES FOR TEACHERS. 

It will be found a very useful aid to intelligent 
understanding of sentences, especially for good 
reading aloud, if phrases of every kind are made 
very clear to the student. Throughout the work 
done in Part II. it is well to do phrasing in class con- 
tinually, using Miss Arnold's book for the purpose. 

Define the two kinds of phrase as follows : 

A phrase is either part of a sentence expressing 
an idea, or a part of speech expressed by more than 
one word. 

As parts of sentences we find the following 
phrases : 

Subject phrase, — i.e., subject noun with its modifiers. 

Object phrase, — i.e., object noun with its modifiers. 

Predicate noun or predicate adjective phrase, — i.e., 
completion of an intransitive verb with its modifiers. 

Infinitive phrase, — i.e., the infinitive with its com- 
pletions or its modifiers, or with both. 

Participial phrase, — i.e., the participle with its 
completion or its modifiers, or with both. 

43 



44 PLAN OF ANALYSIS. 

Prepositional phrase, — i.e., the preposition with its 
noun, always used as a modifying phrase. 

In pointing out phrases, let the kind of phrase 
and its use in the sentence be thoroughly understood. 

As instances of the part of speech expressed by 
more than one word, give verb phrases, page 34 ; 
phrasal prepositions, page 39 ; phrasal conjunctions, 
page 41. 

Note. — It is found to interest young students who are 
sure of Part I. if, when the subject is understood, the 
subject phrase is taught, and with the object the same, 
and also with infinitive and participle. In this way the 
pi nases are gradualty acquired and make the work much 
less dry, the experimental work in class of picking out 
phrases varying the monotony of mere learning in the text- 
book, and producing an interest in language and the con- 
struction of sentences from the first, which is found to 
delight even the younger children. 

PLAN OF ANALYSIS. 

Many different plans of analysis might be sug- 
gested, but the following is perhaps the simplest 
and most complete. 

Note. — Let the following formula be thoroughly under- 
stood : 

Principal sentence + Subordinate sentence = Complex sentence. 
Independent sentence + Independent sentence = Compound sen- 
tence. 

Complex sentence + Independent sentence = Compound sentence. 
Complex sentence -f Complex sentence = Compound sentence. 



PLAN OF ANALYSIS. 45 

"Music when soft voices die vibrates in the 
memory." 

Princ. : Music vibrates in the memory) „ 

\ Complex. 
Sub. adv. : When soft voices die. J 

Where there are many sentences the following 
plan may be suggested : 

"The rose-bush does not break into fulness of 
bloom on some happy morning in June; but with 
the warmth of early April the buds begin to swell 
and the green begins to deepen, and gradually, like 
a queen leisurely robing for her coronation, tint is 
added to tint, beauty to beauty, until it stands in 
the sovereign glory of perfect blossom." 

Ind. a : The rose-bush does not break into 

fulness of bloom on some happy 

morning in June ; 
Princ. b : but with the warmth of early April ~ 

the buds begin to swell 
Princ. c : and (with the warmth of early 

April) the green begins to deepen, 
Princ. d : and gradually, like a queen leisurely 

robing for her coronation, tint is 

added to tint, 
Princ. e : (and gradually, like a queen, etc.) 

beauty is added to beauty, 
Sub. adv. to 6, c, d, and e : until it stands in the 

sovereign glory of perfect blossom. 



46 



PLAN OF ANALYSIS. 



"I cannot see what flowers are at my feet, 

Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs, 

But, in embalmed darkness, guess each sweet 
Wherewith the seasonable month endows 

The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild," etc. 

Princ. a : I cannot see 

Sub. noun cl. b to a : what flowers are at my 
feet, 

Sub. noun cl. c to a : nor what soft incense 
hangs upon the boughs, 

Princ. d : but, in embalmed dark- 

ness, guess each sweet 

Sub. adj. e to d : wherewith the season- 

able month endows the 
grass, etc. 

Note. — For further explanation see Helen Arnold's 
book. 



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